PARTICIPLE

INTRODUCTION

A Participle is a word formed from a verb which can be used as an Adjective and it is one of the types of non-finite verb form. It’s name comes from the Latin ‘’Participum’’ which means‘’Sharing’’ ,it is so named because the ancient Greek and Latin participles  ‘share some of the catogaries of the Adjective or Noun (gender, numbers,case) and some of those of the verb (tenses,voices) for example in the phrases “the finishing touches” and “the finished touches”, finishing and finished are participles made from the verb “finish”. 

                        There are three formsof participles the present participles, the past participles and the perfect participles.Participles are often identified with a Particular Tense participles may alsobe identified with a particular voice. Active or Passive.Some languages have distinct participles for Active and Passive users. In English the present participle is essentially an active participle while the past participle has both Active and Passive forms.

CONTENT

                        We know that participles, Gerunds and Infinitives are called Verbals.Verbals are words which are formed from a verb but which functions as a different part of speeches.Present Participles ending with –ING as in we are going, and the past participles ending with –D or –ED for many verbs and with other letters in other verbs, as in have you decided? ,new houses are being built; it’s not broken. Participles are often used in writing to introduce subordinate clauses that relate to other words in a sentence. Example hermother, opening the door quietly, come in to the room, where it is her mother who is opening the door. Other examples are hearing a noise I went out to look having been born in Rochdale, he spent most of his life in the area.Participles at the beginning of a sentence as in the last two examples are perfectly acceptable grammatically but when they  areover used they can produce a poor style.

A worse stylistic error occurs with so called “DANGLING PARTICIPLES”. participles ‘ dangle when the action they describe is not being performed by the subject of the sentence. Interpreted verb literally ,the sentence recently converted  in to apartments ,I passed by the house where I grew up implies that the person writing has recently been converted into apartments. A small group of participles, which includes allowing for, assuming, considering ,excepting, given including provided seeing (as/ that) and speaking (of) have become prepositions or conjunctions in their own right and their use when unrelated to the subject of the sentence is now standard and perfectly acceptable , as in speaking of money ,how much did this all lost.

PRESENT PARTICIPLE

              Present participle form is also used as an Adjective  eg; As an Adjective ‘I am a working woman’ working is used here as an Adjective. The  present participle can also be used as a noun denoting the action of a verb a Gerund. But remember the present participle can be used as an verb or an Adjective while the Gerund is used as an noun. The present participle of most verbs has the form BASE+ING eg; The verbs “dancing” in “he was dancing and in “ crying” in “the baby is crying” are present participles.

RULES FOR PRESENT PARTICIPLE FORM

v The general rule is “ base form of the verb+ ing”

Eg; work- working

Sleep-sleeping

Grow- growing

Meet- meeting

Go- going

v If a one syllable verb ends in consonant + vowel + consonant +consonant.doubled the final  consonant adding- ing

Eg; cut-cutting

          Win-winning

         Run – running

          Beg- begging

          Sit- sitting

v If a verb has more than one syllable and ends in consonant+ vowel+ consonant, we doubled the final consonant only if the final syllable is stressed and added –ing

Eg; occur-occurring

Commit-committing

Format-formatting

Begin-beginning

Refer- referring

Admit- admitting

v When we see that a verb ends in –ic , we add  -k and then –ing.

Eg. Picnic- picnicking

Frolic-frolicking

Panic-panicking

Traffic-trafficking

Mimic-mimicking.

v When a verb ends in silent –e  the silent –e is dropped and -ing is added

Eg; divide- dividing

Close-closing

Live-living

Write-writing

Vote-voting

Move –moving

v When a verb ends in an –e which is not silent the final –e is not dropped before endind –ing is added

Eg; be- being

See-seeing

v When a verb ends in –ie the –ie is changed to –y before the ending –ing is added

Eg; die-dying

Vie-vying

Lie-lying

THE VERB	THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE
To rise	The rising sun
To boil	The boiling water
To break	The breaking news
To cook	The cooking ham

Some more examples of present participle form

·        The laughing man is stronger than a suffering man.

·        The only thing that  comes to a sleeping man is dreams.

·        If you pick up a starving dog and make him prosperous he will not bite you. This is the difference between a dog and a man.

EXERCISE ON PRESENT PARTICIPLES

Ø ________dogs (bark)

Ø --------------children (play)

Ø --------------cowboys (dance)

Ø -----------people (lie)

Ø ----------ducks (swim)

Ø ---------teachers (sing)

Ø The people today _______(travel) for ore than they were used to

Ø My sister is ______(fly) back to the states tomorrow.

Ø The player is ______(run) as fast as possible .he would like to score better.

Ø Stop ___________ ( throw)  stones at the birds.

Ø The woodcutter is ________(chop) blocks of woods.

PAST PARTICIPLE

A Past participle indicates past or completed action or time. If it often called the –ED  form ;as it is formed by adding –D or -ED ,to the base form of regular verbs however it is also formed in various other ways for irregular verbs.

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS

  A regular verb is any verb whose conjugation follows the typical pattern, or one of the typical patterns of the language to which it belongs. A verb whose conjugation follows a different pattern is called an irregular verbs.

  In English ,for example verbs such as play, enter and associate are regular, since they form their  inflected parts by adding the typical ending –s - ing –ed- to give forms such as plays, entering, associated. On the other hand ,verbs such as drink, hit,  and have are irregular ,since some of their parts are not made according to the typical pattern ‘drank and drunk’.(not drinked)  hit  (as past tense and past participle), (not hitted) and has and had  (not Haves and Haved).

If the Verb ends with a Vowel only  D’  is added. Eg ;shared, scared, dared.

If the Verb ends with a Consonant ed is added .eg; wanted ,shouted ,killed.

 In irregular verbs those verbs that undergo substantial changes when changing forms between tenses are irregular verbs .There is no way to tell what form an irregular verb is going to take on changed tense. The only option for an English speaker is to commit the changes to memory

PRESENT TENSE	PAST TENSE
go	went
run	ran
think	thought

To make the Past tense or Past participle form of most verbs, (regular verbs) .we simply add  _ED at the end.

Example using the Verb  “walk”

Past tense I Walked through the maze

Past participle  Ihave walked through the maze.

Irregular verbs are not that simple,

example using the verb “see”

Past tense We saw the secret maps.

Past Participle we have seen the secret maps.

 Past participles are used for all perfect tense forms of a verb and in the passive voice in the English.

SOME EXAMPLES OF PAST PARTICIPLE FORM

o   The _______son (lose)

o   An _______audience  (interest)

o   A ____leg (break)

o   An---------- bottle  (empty)

o   A________ doors (close)

o   The -----------Apples (buy)

o   The --------- Letters (write)

o   Two ------ bags (pack)

IRREGULAR VERBS- PAST PARTICIPLE

Ø We’ve already _________(have ) lunch

Ø This was the first time she had ______ (do) her home work

Ø We have _____this secret for three years   (keep).

REGULAR VERBS –PAST PARTICIPLE

Ø I ______ (walk) to work last week.

Ø It ------(end) at 6 pm

Ø They __________ (use)  my new pen

Ø You _________(like) the movie. i didn’t.

Ø We _________(marry) in a church.

Ø  

RULES FOR PAST PARTICIPLE FORM

 The past participle is the participle that you find in the third column of lists with regular verbs.

From Perfect tenses (Present perfect simple)—I have spoken.

From passive voice (the letter was written)

As an Adjective form I--- I was bored to death.

For Irregular participle forms see third column of Irregular verbs. Regular verbs from the past participle by adding __ED however ,note the following exceptions in spelling.

Exceptions when adding _ED	Examples
After a final –E only added _D	Love -Loved
Final Consonant after a short ,stressed Vowel, or /as final consonant after a vowel is doubled	Admit- Admitted Travel_Travelled
Final Y after a consonant becomes	Hurry---hurried

The past participle can also be used to shorten or combine passive clauses that have the same subject.

Examples: The boy was given an apple. he stopped crying----Giving an apple ,the boy stopped crying.

PERFECT PARTICIPLE

The perfect participle indicates completed action.You form the perfect participle by putting the present participle having  in front  of the past participle.

For Examples;  having done, having finished, having read, having  spoken ,it can be used to form the passive voice.

RULES FOR PERFECT PARTICIPLE FORM

The perfect participle form can be used to shorten or combine clauses that have the same subject if.

·        One action is completed before the next action starts.

Example; she brought a bike and cycled home- having brought a bike, She  cycled home.

·        One action has been going on for a period of time when another action starts.

 Example; He had been living there for such a long time that he didn’t want to move to another town.- having lived there for such a long time, he didn’t want to move to another town.

The perfect participle can be used for active and passive voice.

Active voice;- having+ past participle. (having cooked, he set the table)

Passive voice;- having been+ past participle (having been cooked ,the food looked delicious.)

 EXERCISE ON PERFECT PARTICIPLE

·        We switched off the lights before we went to bed.

·        The boy asked his mother’s permission and then went out to play.

·        As he had drunk too much, he didn’t drive home himself.

·        We have written two tests today, so we are very exhausted.

·        Since I has not seen him for ages, I didn’t recognize him.

·        We had worked in the garden all day and were sun burned in the evening

CONCLUSION

     A participle is a form  of a  verb that is used in the sentence to modify a noun ,noun phrase, verb or verb phrase, and thus plays a role similar to that of an Adjective or Adverb .participles are often identified with a particular tense, as with the English  present participle and past participle. However this is often a matter of convention; present participles are not necessarily associated with the expression of present time, or past participles necessarily with past time; participles may also be identified with a particular voice; Active or passive. In English present participles is essentially an active participle, while the past participle has both active and passive users.

REFERENCE

www.participles.org.in

TECHNIQUES OF PRESENTING VOCABULARY

                            AND

VOCABULARY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

INTRODUCTION:

“Without Vocabulary Nothing Can Be Conveyed
Without Grammar Very     Little Can Be Conveyed”            
                                 - David Wilkims

The English Language is Very Rich in it’s Vocabulary. It is so because it has borrowed words from many languages. It is interesting to know that “word” in english is “Ved” in Sanscrit, “waurd” in Gothic, “wort” in German and  verbum in Latin.

     A Person’s Vocabulary is Set of Words With in a Language that are Familiar to that Person.A vocabulary usually develops with age and serves as a useful and fundumental tool for communication and acquiring knowledge.

   In this paper we are going to look at english vocabulary studies in terms of ‘lexis’, ‘morphology’, and ‘semantics’ or broadly speaking ‘Lexicology’. This lexical level of language studies is different from Grammar,but it is closely related to other levels of language studies.

MATTER:

Vocabulary is commonly defined As   “ All the
Words known and used by a particular person”.

TYPES OF VOCABULARY:

We know that there are four types of vocabulary included in this session.It is the common factors or most important factors of classification of vocabulary.It is also listed below……..

There are four types of  Vocabulary

Ø Listening vocabulary

Ø Speaking vocabulary

Ø Reading vocabulary

Ø Writing vocabulary

Reading Vocabulary as we know that a literate person’s Reading Vocabulary is all the Words He or She can Recognize when Reading. This is generally the largest type of Vocabulary

In the case of Listening Vocabulary ,a person’s listening Vocabulary is all the Words He or She can Recognize when Listening to Speech people may still understand Words they were not exposed to before using cues such as  Tone, Gestures in the context of communication.

A person’s Speaking Vocabulary is all the Words He or She  uses in Speech .it is likely to be a subset of the Listening Vocabulary.

Words are used in various forms of Writing from to informal .Many  Written  words do not commonly appear in Speech. Writers generally use a limited set of Words  when Communicating  for example……

§  .He is  unlikely to use  technical vocabulary relating to a subject in which He has no Knowledge or interest.

§  .If there are a number of Synonyms, a writer will have his own preferance as  to as to which of them to use.

PRODUCTIVE AND RECEPTIVE VOCABULARY:

   Vocabulary can be classified as  Receptive & Productive  Vocabulary

Words that are generally understood  when heard or read or seen constitute a person’s Receptive  Vocabulary. Means words we understand  when others use it.It is also known as Receive Vocabulary.Example A  Young child may not yet be able to speak, Write, or Sign , He or she may be able to follow simple commands &appear to understand a good portion of language which they exposed .in this case of child’s Receptive Vocabulary is likely ten’s  ,if not hundreds of words but his or her active vocabulary is zero. When the child learn to speak or sign the vocabulary begins to increase.It is possible for the productive vocabulary to be larger than the Receptive vocabulary.Productive vocabulary is known as Achieve vocabulary.It helps to understand how to pronouns ,or  write a word has been used to correctly or accurately reflect the intended message of the utterance.

WORD FORMATION:

In linguistics , word formation is the creation of new words.Word formation is sometimes contrasted with semantic changes, which is the change in a single word meaning.

TYPES  OF WORD FORMATION

v Morphological word formation

There are two sub catogaries; words created by deviation and words created by conversion.

v Derivation (Linguistics)

Derivation is the process of  forming new  words from existing  ones  by adding  Affixes to them . Like Shamelessness in cases in which there is a one –two –one correspondence between affixes and syntactical catogaries

v Conversion.(Word formation)

Also known as zero-affixation ,conversion involving forming a new word from an existing identical one.Doubt,turn, release are used as nouns as well as verbs.

v Blending (Blend word)

 A blend is a word  formed by a joining parts of two or more older words . example ‘smog, which comes from ‘smoke’ and ‘fog’ brunch which comes from ‘break fast’ and ‘lunch.

Ø Clipping ; (sub category of blending)

Also known as ‘truncation’ or shortening ’, clipping is the process which consist of the word reduce of the word to one of its parts example fax (facsimile)flu (influence)  Bot  (robot)

Ø Composition (compounding)

By joining two ore more  words a compound word is formed compounding take place between any two ore more of the word clauses namely nouns , verbs,  adverbs, adjectives. Example , words ;noun+ noun ,noun +verb  ,  compound words ; headache , sunrise.

               As we know that there are many techniques for presenting  vocabulary  infront of the students. Presentation of vocabulary can be done by using reacia,  pictures,name,action ation  and gestures, contrast ,enumeration,explanation or translation. The  presentation of different techniques made the  students much  interested to studies at all. The techniques of presenting realia refers to the use of real objects in the class room. These objects make the meaning  of the word clear.(eg,an Apple, A Pencil, A ball etc..) the teacher may also use classroom environment; a desk a chair , a board. This approach is widely used  with begginer  classes.

                  The techniques of using pictures can be a very useful tool in language teaching ,sence it is used in different ways there are pictures black board drawings, wall pictures, charts, photos from magazines etc…

                             Mime action and gestures techniques are useful for the explanation of actions and  grammar itemes.such concepts as jumping, running or the words from ,in,under etc….are items easy to through performing those actions.

                                Another techniques is interest,it usually shows the similarities and the differences between persones ideas, or thing.when using interest we can ask learners to fined antonymo,or synonyms of words. This teachniques is best used with the learners who already have some vocabulary knowledge.

In the ‘ENUMERATION’ Technique which was described by ‘CAROLINE BRANDT’. Words can be explained  by  ‘ENUMERATING’  or Listing various items.

Example ;VEGETABLES –Potatoes –carrot –cucumber-

                   CLOTHES- BOOTS- JACKET- JEANS.

   she also describe the EXPLANATION Technique.

CLASSROOM TECHNIQUES:

v USING OBJECTS

q  Labels: pasting labels on objects

q Magazine pictures that illustrate words in  Dialogue ,   black board sketches  etc….

q  Props: objects that can be   shown in the class

q Classroom Objects:  calender &  clocks

q  Slides: for   conveying the cultural differences of ordinary words.

               HOUSE IN A VILLAGE

                IN A CLASSROOM

                 IN GNGLAND       (these dwelling places are different in different geographical regions and climates.)

v USING GESTURES& SYMBOLS

v Descriptive objectives:  tall, thin ,happy, dumb, lame.

v Prepositions of place on, in, over, into, under.

v Active verbs :go, jump, throw,

v Symbols for Morning &Noon

v USING KNOWN VOCABULARY

§  Synonyms: probe 0  investigate

The same ideas expressed by two or more different words or phrases &one of these may be familiar to the Reader.

§  Antonyms

§   Synonyms &  Antonyms in sentence contexts.

   Ravana was a cruel man

Ashok was a kind &Noble man.

v USING WORD CATOGARIES

Names of catogaries can be taught verbally if students known some names of items that belong to a particular  catogary.

STATIONARY-pen, pencil, ink, paper

COSMETICS- cream, oil,  powder

FURNITURE-  table,  chair,  sofa.

q  A number of selected words can be introduced under a particular catogary

     A FARM- farm, Farmer, plough, harvest,  Nest,  Sow,  Reap

     MEALS (FOOD)-  Breakfast,  Lunch,  Supper .

DEFINITIONS&  PARAPHRASES

§  PARASITE: Animal or plant living on or in another and getting it’s food from it.

v USING MOTHER TONGUE

 Direct use of mother tongue

We have mentioned already that the prime consideration for the teacher must be to provide as much practice in the use of the target language as possible:The use of mother tongue in teaching new words is the best way to provide this.A lot of practice time will be wasted in avoiding mother tongue because it is of more importance for pupils to practice using the new words in different contexts.Then these words can be assimilated easily and are available for active use.

v VERBAL CONTEXT

Verbal context refers to the text or speech surrounding an expansion (word,sentence or speech).

Example-  EXPENSIVE-A cotton shirt  costs fifteen rupees, a silk shirt costs fifty  rupees.  Here  cotton shirt is cheaper but the silk shirt is expensive.

Glass bangles are cheaper but gold bangles are expensive.

v FINDING MEANINGS FROM CONTEXT

This is guess the meanings from the context.The most common way of finding meaning from the context is by inference.

v EXPERIENCE/ FAMILIARITY

        Means familiarity to the words.    

 Take the word ‘OBE’ Let us say , that students have never heard this word before, look at these sentances

q He used to be    ‘OBE ‘ player in the town.

q He never liked to play the clarinet After, he started playing the ‘OBE’.

     From these  Sentence  we can guess that the meaning of OBE  can be either a game or musical instrument. the second sentence makes the meaning of ‘OBE’  to be only a  musical instrument.

v SEMANTIC GROUPING

 The presentation by semantic grouping enables the learner to master vocabulary better than the presentation of individual items.Association of words by their meaning in vocabulary learning is an important factor.Words are easily learnt if they are organised into semantic grouping.When we learn our language we associate words and sentances with thought, ideas, actions and events. The best strategy for vocabulary teaching is to present words in a semantically organised group. Eg; shore,ocean island.

VOCABULARY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES:

There are three ways  in which Vocabulary is built to relation with vocabulary.

Wide reading is recommended as the best single way of increasing one’s vocabulary.Direct vocabulary instruction means selecting appropriate words to be taught and, then teaching association of meaning by various techniques- the direct approach is one in which lists of words containing words are studied deliberately for development of word power.The best illustration for this is the word power exercises that appear in the readers digest.Incidental instruction to build combination of wide reading and direct instruction.

        Reading vocabulary becomes permanent vocabulary only if it is trasferred to writing, speaking and thinking vocabularies.students ‘attention’ can be diverted to notice the author’s choice of words for accuracy of meaning and also to the power of words in appealing to the various sense.

    Learning at a lower level encode the words in memory on the basis of acoustic and orthographic similarities rather than by association of meaning.But learners of a higher level appear to encide vocabulary in memory primarily on the basis of meaning. Learners should be encouraged to build their own list of technical words. The study of multiple meaning is rewarding and teachers should encourage the students to use the same word for several  things. A word’s meaning depends on it’s context because isolated words mean diferent things for diferent individuals.

EASY WAYS TO IMPROVE AND EXPAND VOCABULARY:

v READ, READ &READ

    Read especially Novels &Literary works

v KEEP A DICTIONARY

    Use whatever versions prefer in print , software, or online.When uncover a new word, look it up in the dictionary to get both it’s pronunciation and it’s meaning.Next to go the treasures and find similar words and phrases and their opposites (synonyms and antonyms)

v LEARN A WORD A DAY

Using a word a- day calender or wedsite or developing learners own list of words to learn-  is a great technique many people use to learn new words.

v PLAY SOME GAMES

    Word games that challenge &help to discover new meanings &new words are a great and fun tool in the quest expanding vocabulary, examples includes..

v Crossword puzzle

v Word jumble

v ENGAGE IN CONVERSATION

    Simple talking  with other people can help to learn anddiscover new words.As with reading ,once we hear a new word, remember to jot it down so that we can study  it later and then slowly add the new word to vocabulary.

v USE FLASH CARDS

Use flash cards to expand vocabulary.

v RECOLLECTION

v A picture showing a number of objects or a tray  containing a number of objects say twenty is shiwn to the students for a limited time, say one minute and the picture or tray is withdrawn or covered.

v SYNONYMS AND ANTONYM CARDS

In this game  cards with two words which are synonyms  and cards with two words which are antonyms are prepared. The player looking at a card speaks one word, the other players are to give it’s synonyms /antonym as the case may be.

CONCLUSION:

In conclusion teaching vocabulary and expansion of vocabulary  are important. As we know that the presentation techniques are the best way to understanding vocabulary.In teaching vocabulary it is important to implimnt appropriate techniques and teaching aids.The teacher is responsible for  choosing best techniques for  students.Several teaching techniques includes the use of relia or pictures, mime , action and gesture techniques , the enumeration technique, interaction with words  , the traslation techniques.

                                                         Expanding vocabulary is achievable.It can improve our communication skills and develop reading and writing ability. It does not matter at what stage of our carer , education and personal growth.